Liquid Gold: A review of the dermatologic applications of honey

Natalie M Soliman, BS; Andrea M Rustad, MD; Apple Bodemer, MD

doi:10.64550/joid.ccgp2m09

Review Article

06 Aug 2025

Liquid Gold: A review of the dermatologic applications of honey

Natalie M Soliman, BS, Andrea M Rustad, MD, Apple Bodemer, MD

Review Article

06 Jul 2026

Liquid Gold: A review of the dermatologic applications of honey

Natalie M Soliman, BS, Andrea M Rustad, MD, Apple Bodemer, MD

Article Info

DOI:
10.64550/joid.ccgp2m09

ISSN:
3143-0260

Reviewed by:
Ajay Dulai, MD, Jennifer Ornelas, MD

Abstract

Honey has been used for centuries for a variety of medicinal purposes, including wound healing and mucocutaneous conditions. Modern research has elucidated many of the biochemical mechanisms behind its efficacy in dermatologic conditions. This manuscript outlines the proposed scientific mechanisms behind honey’s antimicrobial, wound healing, and anti-inflammatory effects and its applications in dermatology. As interest in integrative and natural therapies grows, honey continues to emerge as a relevant natural alternative or adjunctive treatment for multiple dermatologic conditions. Topical honey is promising as an overall safe, affordable, and effective treatment in dermatology and wound care. However, more research is needed to define its medicinal use and to determine optimal treatment protocols.

Introduction

Honey has been used for managing cutaneous infections and wounds since ancient times. Records of its dermatologic applications appear in a Sumerian tablet circa 3000 BC and the Egyptian Ebers Papyrus circa 1500 BC.¹ The composition of honey includes approximately 180 different compounds, including water, sugars, free amino acids, enzymes, essential minerals, vitamins, and a variety of phytochemicals.² Studies have illustrated multiple beneficial properties of honey including antimicrobial, wound healing, and anti-inflammatory effects, making it a promising integrative treatment in dermatology. In addition to antibacterial and antifungal activity, emerging evidence suggests honey may also demonstrate antiviral effects against certain viruses, including herpes simplex virus (HSV), with experimental and clinical studies suggesting activity against HSV infection.

Due to its high sugar content, primarily glucose and fructose (70%), honey exhibits strong osmotic activity, desiccating water from both gram-negative and gram-positive bacterial organisms—including some drug-resistant microbes—leading to microbial death.³ Additionally, it creates an environment inhospitable to bacteria, fungi, and viruses, through enzymatic activity which creates reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide.^4,5 Its acidic pH, ranging from approximately 3.2 to 4.5, also helps inhibit bacterial growth and activity.⁶ These combined properties may also contribute to antiviral effects through impairment of viral stability and local replication.⁷ Due to honey’s multiple antimicrobial components and diverse mechanisms of action, it is unlikely that resistance to honey will develop—a concept that will be explored further below.⁶

Honey is proposed to promote wound healing by stimulating fibroblast proliferation and attracting macrophages, which release vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) to support angiogenesis.⁸ Honey’s acidity may further enhance healing by promoting local oxygen release from hemoglobin at the tissue site, reducing protease activity, and stimulating fibroblast activity.⁶

Beyond its antimicrobial and fibroblast-supporting effects, honey also displays promising anti-inflammatory properties, primarily due to its phenolic compounds, including caffeic acid, vanillic acid, ferulic acid, and salicylic acid. These compounds appear to downregulate inflammatory markers such as TNF-α, IL-12p70, MCP-1, and IFN-γ.⁹ Antioxidant properties of honey are attributed to compounds such as tocopherols, ascorbic acid, and superoxide dismutase. These substances can counteract the harmful effects of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species.⁸

The synergy of honey’s antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidative properties makes it especially effective in promoting wound healing, as well as in decreasing mucocutaneous inflammation.

This article provides a comprehensive review of the current literature on the dermatologic applications of honey. We summarize proposed mechanisms of action, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and wound-healing properties, and review available clinical evidence supporting its use across wound care, inflammatory dermatoses, mucosal disease, and cosmetic dermatology. Safety considerations and current gaps in evidence are also discussed.

Methods

A literature review was performed using the PubMed database to identify studies published between 2015 to November 2025. The search focused on peer-reviewed articles related to the use of honey in wound healing and skin care. Keywords included “honey” paired with “wound healing,” “wound,” “dermatology,” “skin,” and “skin care.” Select primary studies from prior to 2015 were included if referenced in recent studies and of relevance to this review. For adverse effects, in addition to review of the articles identified with the above method, PubMed was queried with terms including “honey” paired with “adverse effects,” “contact dermatitis,” and “botulism” from database inception until 2025. Studies were selected based on their relevance to clinical applications, mechanisms of action, and the efficacy of honey in dermatologic and wound management.

Varieties of Honey Studied for Topical Use

Different types of honey have been studied for their specific benefits in wound care and purported medicinal properties, most notably Manuka, Tualang, and medical-grade honey (MGH). MGH is honey that has been sterilized and standardized to ensure it is safe, pure, and effective for medical use. Manuka and Tualang honeys come from specific plants and have unique natural properties, which will be discussed in detail below. Both can be processed into medical-grade forms for clinical application.

In addition to biochemical and antimicrobial differences, real-world considerations such as cost, accessibility, and environmental impact may influence clinical selection of honey type. Manuka honey is often more expensive than other honey types due to limited geographic distribution of the Manuka tree, strict production standards, and high global demand.¹⁰ Because Manuka honey is produced almost exclusively in New Zealand from the Leptospermum scoparium plant, supply limitations can contribute to variability in availability and pricing.¹¹ In contrast, Tualang honey is primarily harvested from wild Apis dorsata colonies in Malaysian rainforest ecosystems, which can make it more regionally accessible in Southeast Asia but may also introduce variability in sourcing and supply.¹¹ Medical-grade honey products are generally the most accessible in clinical settings due to standardized production and distribution, although processing and sterilization requirements may increase overall product cost compared to non-medical honey products. Environmental impact may also vary between honey types, as increased demand for single-source honeys such as Manuka has raised concerns regarding production pressure and ecological strain, whereas diversified regional honey production and regulated harvesting practices may support more sustainable sourcing models.¹² These real-world differences provide important context when interpreting the clinical literature discussed below.

Manuka honey is among the most studied for skin and medicinal applications.¹³ A key component of Manuka honey’s antimicrobial activity is methylglyoxal (MGO). This is derived from the conversion of dihydroxyacetone (DHA), a compound naturally present in high concentrations in Manuka flower nectar.¹⁴ The concentration of MGO in Manuka honey is positively correlated to its antibacterial activity.¹⁵ To quantify this, honey producers use the Unique Manuka Factor (UMF™) rating system, which reflects the concentrations of MGO, DHA, and leptosperin. A UMF™ rating of 10+ is considered therapeutically active, though the clinical relevance of this scale remains under investigation.¹⁴ Similarly, Tualang honey from Malaysia is rich in flavonoids and phenolic acids, supporting antioxidant activity and tissue regeneration, and has been studied specifically in wound healing.¹⁶

MGH is organic, carefully selected, undergoes gamma radiation to remove potential contaminants, and meets strict production, storage, legal, therapeutic, and safety requirements.¹⁷ An example is Medihoney, a specific brand of MGH that has been medically certified for professional wound care in Europe, Australia, and the US.¹⁷

Use of Honey in Dermatologic Conditions (Table 1)

Wound Healing

Honey can be beneficial throughout the wound-healing process, helping to speed up recovery and reduce excessive scarring.⁶ A meta-analysis including 16 studies demonstrated that honey dressings significantly improved healing outcomes in patients with diabetic foot ulcers by reducing wound size, pain, and hospital stay, while accelerating granulation tissue development.¹⁸ Medihoney is frequently used in the care of wounds of all types with promising results, and is a safe, cost-effective, and user-friendly treatment option.¹⁹ It has even been used successfully in severe pediatric wounds, including burns, pressure ulcers, extravasation injuries, and ulcerated vascular lesions, including one report in an infant.²⁰ A recent systematic review found that MGH demonstrated in vitro anti-biofilm activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, providing further support for its use in chronic wounds.²¹ Manuka honey under occlusion was found to improve wound closure over four weeks without side effects in a study of 15 patients with chronic wounds with active purulent discharge.²²

350268 Table 1. Summary of Evidence-Based Data for Topical Honey in Dermatologic Conditions

Dermatologic Condition	Main Outcomes	Type(s) of honey studied	Potential mechanism	Adverse events
Impetigo ²³	Western Australian and Manuka honeys inhibited S. aureus and S. pyogenes in vitro; MIC₅₀ for S. aureus = 4–8% w/v; S. pyogenes = 8–29% w/v	Jarrah, Marri, Red Bell, Banksia, Manuka	Antibacterial effects from hydrogen peroxide, high sugar, low pH, and MGO	N/A (in vitro study)
Orolabial HSV ^24,25	Honey reduced healing time and pain compared to acyclovir in children with HSV gingivostomatitis (p = 0.004)	Unspecified natural honey	Antiviral, anti-inflammatory, promotes tissue healing	None reported
Orolabial HSV ^24,25	Kanuka honey was as effective as 5% acyclovir cream in healing time for labial HSV; no significant difference in healing rates (p = 0.892)	Kanuka honey	Antiviral, anti-inflammatory, promotes tissue healing and barrier repair	None reported
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis ²⁶	Honey inhibited growth of Candida albicans and Candida glabrata in vitro; MIC and MFC values were comparable to fluconazole; no p-value reported	Unspecified natural honey	Antifungal effects via osmotic stress, low pH, hydrogen peroxide, and phenolic compounds	N/A (in vitro study)
Necrotizing fasciitis ²⁷	Compared to control, honey significantly reduced slough clearance time (2.48 vs. 2.83 days, p = 0.005), wound healing time (20.2 vs. 28.4 days, p = 0.000*), and hospital stay (4.96 vs. 9.33 days, p = 0.007)	Ber honey (Ziziphus mauritiana), sterilized with gamma irradiation	Antibacterial effects from hydrogen peroxide, promotes angiogenesis, granulation, and epithelialization	None reported
Atopic Dermatitis and Psoriasis ²⁸	Daily raw honey under occlusion for 7 days led to significant improvement: TIS score decreased from 6 to 1 in AD (p < 0.01); PASI scores improved in psoriasis with sustained benefits at 1 month	Raw natural honey	Anti-inflammatory via inhibition of COX, LOX, iNOS, cytokines; NF-κB modulation and skin barrier repair	None reported
Rosacea ²⁹	In an RCT of 138 adults, 34.3% using Honevo (Kanuka honey + glycerine) had ≥2-point improvement in IGA-RSS vs 17.4% in control group (p = 0.020)	Medical-grade Kanuka honey (90%) + Glycerine (10%)	Anti-inflammatory (decreased neutrophil activity, cytokine modulation), antimicrobial, supports skin barrier repair	Mild symptoms such as burning, itching, and stinging reported, but overall treatment was well tolerated
Intertrigo ³⁰	Reduced pain, inflammation, and erythema across age groups (infants to elderly) using Medihoney Barrier Cream	Medihoney Barrier Cream (with medical-grade Manuka honey)	Protects skin barrier, reduces inflammation, provides antimicrobial activity	None reported
Folliculitis decalvans ³¹	Complete clearance of inflammation and pustules in 6 months with topical Manuka honey and oral cephalexin; allowed discontinuation of antibiotics	Medical-grade Manuka honey	Anti-staphylococcal effect via hydrogen peroxide, MGO, and immunomodulation	None reported
Oral lichen planus ³²	Honey combined with photobiomodulation significantly reduced pain, improved clinical scores, and enhanced oral function compared to placebo (p < 0.001)	Unspecified natural honey	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, promotes mucosal healing and epithelial regeneration	None reported
Radiation-Induced Mucositis ³³	Meta-analysis of 10 RCTs (n = 599) showed honey significantly reduced grade 3–4 mucositis, pain, and weight loss during radiotherapy (p < 0.001)	Natural and Manuka honeys	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, promotes epithelial repair and reduces oxidative damage	Mostly well tolerated; occasional nausea or mild burning reported in isolated cases, no serious adverse events

AD: Atopic Dermatitis, COX: Cyclooxygenase, IGA-RSS: Investigator Global Assessment of Rosacea Severity Score, iNOS: Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase, LOX: Lipoxygenase, MFC: Minimum Fungicidal Concentration, MGO: Methylglyoxal, MIC: Minimum Inhibitory Concentration, NF-κB: Nuclear Factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells, PASI: Psoriasis Area and Severity Index, RCT: Randomized Controlled Trial, TIS: Three-Item Severity score, w/v: Weight/Volume (concentration)

*Publication reports “p = 0.000” without further detail²⁷

Honey has shown promise as an adjunctive treatment for wounds secondary to cutaneous infections, specifically in orolabial HSV and necrotizing fasciitis.^24,25,27 In a large randomized controlled trial including 952 participants, topical Kanuka honey demonstrated equivalence to topical acyclovir cream for labial HSV when both were applied five times daily.²⁴ Oral acyclovir remains the standard of care for treatment given higher efficacy and increased convenience. However, honey clearly has efficacy and benefit and could be considered in resistant cases, situations when oral antivirals are contraindicated such as allergy or as adjunctive treatment to enhance healing.²⁴ In a randomized clinical trial (RCT) of 175 patients with necrotizing fasciitis comparing topical honey with Edinburgh University’s Solution of Lime (EUSOL)—an antiseptic that contains chlorinated lime and boric acid used to disinfect wounds and promote healing—honey dressings resulted in significantly shorter hospital stays (4.96 vs. 9.33 days) and faster wound-healing times (20.23 vs. 28.38 days). Notably, the control group had a significantly higher proportion of smokers, which may have negatively affected wound healing in that group and could partly account for the larger difference in healing times.²⁷ In in vitro studies, various types of honey, including Manuka, were found to inhibit S. aureus and other staphylococcal species as well as Candida albicans and glabrata, demonstrating honey’s generalized antimicrobial activity.^23,26

Inflammatory & Chronic Dermatoses

Although most dermatologic data are clinical, laboratory studies show that honey can directly reduce inflammation. Honey and its polyphenols lower key inflammatory signals such as TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, COX-2, and iNOS, and dampen upstream inflammatory pathways such as NF-κB and MAPK. Simultaneously increasing antioxidant enzymes while reducing malondialdehyde—a marker of oxidative stress—honey’s polyphenols can further counter inflammation.³⁴ These mechanisms support its potential benefit in inflammatory skin disease.³⁴

Eczematous Dermatitis and Psoriasis

The anti-inflammatory effects of honey are promising for atopic dermatitis. Along with topical steroids for flares of atopic dermatitis, there appears to be a role for honey in both maintenance therapy and flare prevention. In a small open-label study of 14 adults, nightly application of raw honey to affected skin for one week led to visible improvement in redness, scaling, and itching compared to untreated control sites.³⁵ Recently, an emollient cream containing honey along with aloe vera, wheat germ oil, and tea tree extract also demonstrated complementary benefits in AD management.³⁶ Regular use significantly improved dryness and itch, with patients reporting high satisfaction.³⁶ Manuka honey has also been reported as an adjunctive treatment with striking benefit for contact dermatitis in one case report.³⁷

In a small study of 12 patients with atopic dermatitis and 6 with psoriasis, 7 days of occluded lesional raw honey application resulted in significant clinical improvement. Atopic dermatitis severity improved, with Three Item Severity (TIS) scores decreasing from 6 to 1 after one week. Psoriatic lesions also demonstrated significant improvement in Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI) scores, with sustained improvement observed one month after treatment discontinuation, with PASI improvement approaching 80% in some patients.²⁸

Rosacea

A study of 138 adults with rosacea found that applying 90% medical-grade Kanuka honey with 10% glycerine (Honevo) twice daily for 8 weeks led to noticeable improvement in 34.3% of patients, compared to 17.4% using a control cream (p = 0.020).²⁹ Clinical improvement in this study was defined as a ≥2-point reduction in the Investigator Global Assessment–Rosacea Severity Score (IGA-RSS), a validated 7-point scale that reflects global rosacea severity based on erythema, inflammatory lesion burden, papules/pustules, and telangiectasia. Honey may also target a key pathogenic factor in rosacea: Demodex overgrowth. An in vitro study demonstrated that Manuka honey can reduce ocular Demodex viability, offering a plausible supplementary mechanism for clinical benefit.³⁸

Intertrigo

In a randomized study of 31 patients with bilateral intertrigo, Medihoney barrier cream and zinc oxide ointment demonstrated comparable overall healing over a 21-day treatment period.³⁹ However, patients reported greater reduction in symptom burden, including pruritus and pain, with honey-based barrier cream compared to zinc oxide ointment, with no reported adverse effects. Zinc oxide remains an effective barrier protectant against irritants but may be less effective at maintaining hydration of the underlying skin compared with silicone-based and honey-containing barrier formulations. These findings suggest that while both agents improve clinical disease severity, honey-containing barrier creams may offer additional symptomatic benefit and improved patient comfort.^30,39

Folliculitis Decalvans

A case report of a 20-year-old man reported clearance of folliculitis decalvans within six months using a combination of topical Manuka honey and oral cephalexin, eventually allowing him to discontinue cephalexin with continued benefit.³¹ This case highlights the significant benefit of anti-staphylococcal properties of honey.

Mucosal Diseases

Oral Lichen Planus

A randomized placebo-controlled trial in patients with oral lichen planus combining topical honey therapy and photobiomodulation with a non-contact 980-nm diode laser demonstrated significant pain reduction, improved clinical presentation, and enhanced oral function scores compared to placebo group of photobiomodulation and sugar syrup.³² A smaller study suggested a swish and swallow honey treatment may improve oral ulceration healing; however, the results did not reach statistical significance.⁴⁰

Mucositis

Honey has shown promise in reducing the severity of radiation-induced mucositis in patients undergoing treatment for head and neck cancer.^41,42 A recent meta-analysis of 10 randomized controlled trials involving 599 patients found that topical honey application significantly reduced the incidence of grade 3–4 oral mucositis among head and neck cancer patients undergoing radiation treatment. It also helped relieve pain and minimize weight loss during radiotherapy.³³ Although the included studies used both botanical-specific and polyfloral honeys, outcomes did not differ significantly between honey types, suggesting comparable clinical benefit.³³

Cosmetic Effects

A wide range of skincare formulations incorporating honey and other bee-derived products are available over the counter. These products are becoming more popular as the skincare market exponentially grows and customers are increasingly looking for natural or naturally derived options.^43–47 The concentration of honey varies widely depending on the type of cosmetic product. Lower percentages (0.5–5%) are typically used in foaming products, creams, and emulsions, while higher concentrations (10–15%) are found in anhydrous ointments.⁴⁸ Few studies have assessed the cosmetic effects of honey, however its humectant benefits are well characterized.

In a small study of 24 subjects using varying concentrations of multifloral honey topically twice a day for four weeks, skin moisturization and wrinkle depth were improved statistically significantly compared to placebo as measured by various instruments.⁴⁹ Skin hydration was measured using the Corneometer CM 825 probe, while wrinkle depth and wrinkle area were assessed using the Visioline VL 650 imaging system. After four weeks of use, honey-containing formulations demonstrated increases in skin moisturization of up to 29.7%, reductions in wrinkle area of approximately 21%, and reductions in mean wrinkle depth of approximately 10–12%. In vitro studies using human immortalized keratinocytes and human skin tissue models suggested that honey extracts can reduce DNA strand breaks and preserve cell viability after UVB exposure. Additionally, honey extracts inhibited the UVB-induced increase in matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)—specifically MMP-3, MMP-7, and MMP-9—which play a role in collagen degradation.⁵⁰

Adverse Effects

Overall, topical honey is a very safe and affordable product. The main limiting factor in topical honey usage is its high adherence and viscosity.⁵¹ For this reason, it is generally formulated in a lower percentage and more amenable vehicle in cosmeceutical skincare products. However, for wound care and medical usage, the viscosity can be desirable for barrier and emollient purposes. Apart from the limiting texture, topical honey has very rarely been reported to have adverse effects.

While pure honey is unlikely to cause allergic sensitization, additives or contaminants in topical honey have potential to cause allergic contact dermatitis. Only two known cases of contact dermatitis to a component of Medihoney, such as alkyl glucoside, have been reported, and patients were not sensitized to the pure honey.⁵² Combined oral and cutaneous exposures have rarely been reported to lead to sensitization to honey. The two cases that have been described likely involve epicutaneous sensitization. One case of sensitization to honey contributing to cheilitis was reported after years of daily honey sandwich ingestion and one case of contact urticaria syndrome was reported after combined honey ingestion and use of honey in skincare.^53,54 These reactions may be linked to increased exposure to bee-derived ingredients such as propolis (a resinous mixture produced by honeybees), which has become more common in skincare products. Propolis contains a relatively high amount of protein, which likely plays a role in its allergenicity. Much more common than reactions to pure honey, contact dermatitis to propolis-enriched honey or propolis alone is reported.^53–59 Well over 250 cases of propolis contact dermatitis have been described, and its rising prevalence is likely due to increased utilization.^59,60

Approximately one quarter of raw unprocessed honey is known to be contaminated with Clostridium botulinum spores, which when ingested, can pose a threat to infants under one year of age.⁶¹ The risk of botulism from topical application is not well characterized, but generally considered to be low.⁶¹ MGH products are treated with gamma radiation, and should theoretically be free of contamination, however it is hypothesized that Clostridial spores may be resistant to this radiation sterilization.⁶¹ There has been only one reported case of botulism in a wound on an infant that was treated with Medihoney. In that case, the infant was not immunosuppressed and had no systemic risk factors, but the umbilical wound was ulcerated and infected, creating an anaerobic environment where C. botulinum spores could potentially germinate.⁶² However, cultures from both the infant’s body fluids and the Medihoney were negative, and investigators were unable to confirm the microbial diagnosis given the complexity and lack of widespread availability of Clostridium botulinum or neurotoxin testing.⁶² No other cases are reported in the literature with botulism related to topical honey, and previous studies in neonatal wounds reported beneficial outcomes without adverse effects.^20,63,64 Given the potential fatality of botulism, use of honey—even MGH—in infants should be avoided or used with caution.

Conclusion

Topical honey has been used for centuries as a natural remedy, and modern research continues to affirm its beneficial properties. With dermatologic benefits from wound healing, decreased inflammation, antimicrobial effects, and improved moisturization, honey is more than just a kitchen staple. To ensure safety and minimize the risk of contamination or adverse reactions, honey used for therapeutic purposes should be medical grade. More research is needed to refine its medical use and determine optimal parameters and methods, however, topical MGH is promising as an overall safe, affordable, and effective treatment in dermatology and wound care.

References

1. Zubair R., Aziz N.. "As smooth as honey--the historical use of honey as topical medication." JAMA Dermatol, vol. 151, 2015, p. 1102. DOI: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2015.1764.
Google Scholar

2. Escuredo O., Míguez M., Fernández-González M., Carmen Seijo M.. "Nutritional value and antioxidant activity of honeys produced in a European Atlantic area." Food Chem, vol. 138, 2013, p. 851. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.11.015.
Google Scholar

3. Anand S., Deighton M., Livanos G., Pang E.C.K., Mantri N.. "Agastache honey has superior antifungal activity in comparison with important commercial honeys." Sci Rep, vol. 9, 2019, p. . DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-54679-w.
Google Scholar

4. Yupanqui Mieles J., Vyas C., Aslan E., Humphreys G., Diver C., Bartolo P.. "Honey: An advanced antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterial for tissue engineering applications." Pharmaceutics, vol. 14, 2022, p. 1663. DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14081663.
Google Scholar

5. Jodidio M., Schwartz R. A.. "Honey therapies for dermatological disorders: more than just a sweet elixir." Int J Dermatol, vol. 63, 2024, p. 422. DOI: 10.1111/ijd.16925.
Google Scholar

6. Oryan A., Alemzadeh E., Moshiri A.. "Biological properties and therapeutic activities of honey in wound healing: A narrative review and meta-analysis." J Tissue Viability, vol. 25, 2016, p. 98. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtv.2015.12.002.
Google Scholar

7. Al-Hatamleh M. A. I., Hatmal M. M., Sattar K... "Antiviral and immunomodulatory effects of phytochemicals from honey against COVID-19: Potential mechanisms of action and future directions." Molecules, vol. 25, 2020, p. 5017. DOI: 10.3390/molecules25215017.
Google Scholar

8. Scepankova H., Combarros-Fuertes P., Fresno J. M... "Role of honey in advanced wound care." Molecules, vol. 26, 2021, p. 4784. DOI: 10.3390/molecules26164784.
Google Scholar

9. da Silva B., Caon T., Mohr E. T. B... "Phenolic profile and in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of Bentham honeydew honey in RAW 264.7 murine macrophages." J Food Biochem, vol. 46, 2022, p. e14076. DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.14076.
Google Scholar

10. Why Manuka Honey is So Expensive. 9-29-2023, Accessed February 7, 2026. https://manukahut.com/blogs/manuka-honey/unlocking-the-mystery-why-manuka-honey-is-so-expensive?utm_source=chatgpt.com=c7398b9a-04bc-4925-be53-3aee1ae7c6ff

11. Ahmed S., Othman N. H.. "Review of the medicinal effects of tualang honey and a comparison with manuka honey." Malays J Med Sci, vol. 20, 2013, p. 6. DOI: .

12. The Environmental Impact of Honey Production. 3-6-2024, Accessed February 7, 2026. https://rawhoney.ae/blogs/news/the-environmental-impact-of-honey-production

13. Molan P., Rhodes T.. "Honey: A biologic wound dressing." Wounds, vol. 27, 2015, p. 141. DOI: .

14. Johnston M., McBride M., Dahiya D., Owusu-Apenten R., Nigam P. S.. "Antibacterial activity of Manuka honey and its components: An overview." AIMS Microbiol, vol. 4, 2018, p. 655. DOI: 10.3934/microbiol.2018.4.655.
Google Scholar

15. Schmidt C., Eichelberger K., Rohm H.. "New Zealand mānuka honey - A review on specific properties and possibilities to distinguish mānuka from kānuka honey." Lebenson Wiss Technol, vol. 136, 2021, p. 110311. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110311.
Google Scholar

16. Azman A. N. S. S., Tan J. J., Abdullah M. N. H., Bahari H., Lim V., Yong Y. K.. "Medicinal activities of Tualang honey: a systematic review." BMC Complement Med Ther, vol. 24, 2024, p. 358. DOI: 10.1186/s12906-024-04664-2.
Google Scholar

17. Peters L. J., Majtan J., Mossialos D... "Medical-grade honey: its definition and refined standards." J Wound Care, vol. 34, 2025, p. 412. DOI: 10.12968/jowc.2024.0206.
Google Scholar

18. Karadeniz Y., Serin K.. "Use of honey in diabetic foot ulcer: Systematic review and meta-analysis." J Tissue Viability, vol. 32, 2023, p. 270. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtv.2023.03.002.
Google Scholar

19. Fitzmaurice S. D., Sivamani R. K., Isseroff R. R.. "Antioxidant therapies for wound healing: a clinical guide to currently commercially available products." Skin Pharmacol Physiol, vol. 24, 2011, p. 113. DOI: 10.1159/000322643.
Google Scholar

20. Smaropoulos E., Cremers N. A. J.. "Treating severe wounds in pediatrics with medical grade honey: A case series." Clin Case Rep, vol. 8, 2020, p. 469. DOI: 10.1002/ccr3.2691.
Google Scholar

21. Hariyudo H., Benokri H. R., Wirohadidjojo Y. W., Herdini C., Budiyanto A., Nugroho D. B.. "The elimination effect of medical-grade honey on Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms: A systematic review and meta-analysis." J Clin Med Res, vol. 17, 2025, p. 445. DOI: 10.14740/jocmr6312.
Google Scholar

22. Kapoor N., Yadav R.. "Manuka honey: A promising wound dressing material for the chronic nonhealing discharging wounds: A retrospective study." Natl J Maxillofac Surg, vol. 12, 2021, p. 233. DOI: 10.4103/njms.NJMS_154_20.
Google Scholar

23. Chhawchharia A., Haines R. R., Green K. J., Barnett T. C., Bowen A. C., Hammer K. A.. "In vitro antibacterial activity of Western Australian honeys, and manuka honey, against bacteria implicated in impetigo." Complement Ther Clin Pract, vol. 49, 2022, p. 101640. DOI: 10.1016/j.ctcp.2022.101640.
Google Scholar

24. Semprini A., Singer J., Braithwaite I... "Kanuka honey versus aciclovir for the topical treatment of herpes simplex labialis: a randomised controlled trial." BMJ Open, vol. 9, 2019, p. e026201. DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2018-026201.
Google Scholar

25. Awad A. N., Hamad O. G.. "Honey can help in herpes simplex gingivostomatitis in children: Prospective randomized double blind placebo controlled clinical trial." Am J Otolaryngol, vol. 39, 2018, p. 759. DOI: 10.1016/j.amjoto.2018.09.007.
Google Scholar

26. van Riel S. J. J. M., Lardenoije C. M. J. G., Oudhuis G. J., Cremers N. A. J.. "Treating (recurrent) vulvovaginal candidiasis with medical-grade honey-concepts and practical considerations." J Fungi (Basel), vol. 7, 2021, p. 664. DOI: 10.3390/jof7080664.
Google Scholar

27. Rai L., Ghufran M. A., Samo K. A., Mangi M. H., Babar J., Abbasi M. R.. "A comparative study between use of topical honey and Edinburgh University's solution of lime (EUSOL) dressing in necrotizing fasciitis wounds." Cureus, vol. 15, 2023, p. . DOI: 10.7759/cureus.33825.
Google Scholar PubMed Central PubMed

28. Mohammed H.. "Anti-inflammatory properties of raw honey and its clinical applications in daily practice." Qatar Med J, vol. 2022, 2022, p. 27. DOI: 10.5339/qmj.2022.fqac.27.
Google Scholar

29. Braithwaite I., Hunt A., Riley J... "Randomised controlled trial of topical kanuka honey for the treatment of rosacea." BMJ Open, vol. 5, 2015, p. e007651. DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-007651.
Google Scholar

30. Woodward S.. "Moisture-associated skin damage: use of a skin protectant containing manuka honey." Br J Nurs, vol. 28, 2019, p. 329. DOI: 10.12968/bjon.2019.28.6.329.
Google Scholar

31. Yeh J. E., Hartman R. I., Xu J., Hoang M., Yasuda M. R.. "Resolution of folliculitis decalvans with medical honey." Dermatol Online J, vol. 25, 2019, p. . DOI: 10.5070/d3258045144.
Google Scholar

32. Fathy Samhan A., Mohamed Abdelhalim N.. "Effectiveness of honey therapy combined with photobiomodulation in the treatment of oral lichen planus: a randomized placebo-controlled trial." Physiother Q, vol. 29, 2021, p. 28. DOI: 10.5114/pq.2020.100290.
Google Scholar

33. Li C. P., Gau S. Y., Chen C. C., Kao C. H., Tsai R. Y., Yang H. J.. "Honey in alleviating severe oral mucositis among head and neck cancer patients undergoing radiation therapy." In Vivo, vol. 38, 2024, p. 1397. DOI: 10.21873/invivo.13581.
Google Scholar

34. Rahmani A. H., Babiker A. Y.. "Review on role of honey in disease prevention and treatment through modulation of biological activities." Open Life Sci, vol. 20, 2025, p. . DOI: 10.1515/biol-2025-1069.
Google Scholar

35. Alangari A. A., Morris K., Lwaleed B. A... "Honey is potentially effective in the treatment of atopic dermatitis: Clinical and mechanistic studies." Immun Inflamm Dis, vol. 5, 2017, p. 190. DOI: 10.1002/iid3.153.
Google Scholar

36. Ganjoo A., Shah S., Godse K. V... "Aloe vera, wheat germ oil, tea tree extract and honey-based emollient cream in the management of atopic dermatitis: a post-hoc analysis." Int J Res Dermatol, vol. 9, 2023, p. 362. DOI: 10.18203/issn.2455-4529.intjresdermatol20233180.
Google Scholar

37. Harrison J.. "Manuka honey: A case study of severe atopic eczematous dermatitis reaction to henna tattoo." Plast Surg Nurs, vol. 37, 2017, p. 154. DOI: 10.1097/PSN.0000000000000207.
Google Scholar

38. Frame K., Cheung I. M. Y., Wang M. T. M., Turnbull P. R., Watters G. A., Craig J. P.. "Comparing the in vitro effects of MGOTM Manuka honey and tea tree oil on ocular Demodex viability." Cont Lens Anterior Eye, vol. 41, 2018, p. 527. DOI: 10.1016/j.clae.2018.06.006.
Google Scholar

39. Nijhuis W. A., Houwing R. H., Van der Zwet W. C., Jansman F. G. A.. "A randomised trial of honey barrier cream versus zinc oxide ointment." Br J Nurs, vol. 21, 2012, p. S10. DOI: 10.12968/bjon.2012.21.sup14.s10.
Google Scholar

40. Sanatkhani M., Mosannen Mozafari P., Amirchaghmaghi M... "Effect of cedar honey in the treatment of oral lichen planus." Iran J Otorhinolaryngol, vol. 26, 2014, p. 151. DOI: .

41. Rao S., Hegde S.K., Rao P... "Honey mitigates radiation-induced oral mucositis in head and neck cancer patients without affecting the tumor response." Foods, vol. 6, 2017, p. 77. DOI: 10.3390/foods6090077.
Google Scholar

42. Andriakopoulou C. S., Yapijakis C., Koutelekos I., Perdikaris P.. "Prevention and treatment of oral mucositis in pediatric patients: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials." In Vivo, vol. 38, 2024, p. 1016. DOI: 10.21873/invivo.13535.
Google Scholar

43. Honey infused haircare from the Mirsalehi Bee Garden. 2024, Accessed November 10, 2025. https://gisou.com/

44. Hydrating Honey Skincare Products. 2024, Accessed November 10, 2025. https://www.farmacybeauty.com/collections/honey-skincare/

45. Sephora. 2024, Accessed November 10, 2025. https://www.sephora.com/search?keyword=honey

46. Site Search. 2024, Accessed November 10, 2025. https://www.ulta.com/search?search=honey=ULTA_NESTED_CATEGORIES--Skin+Care

47. . 2024, Accessed November 11, 2025. https://www.heyhoney.com/

48. Pavlačková J., Egner P., Slavík R., Mokrejš P., Gál R.. "Hydration and barrier potential of cosmetic matrices with bee products." Molecules, vol. 25, 2020, p. 2510. DOI: 10.3390/molecules25112510.
Google Scholar

49. Suwiński G., Nowak I.. "Innovative honey-based product and its beneficial effects measured by modern biophysical and imaging skin techniques." Pharmaceuticals (Basel), vol. 17, 2024, p. 1709. DOI: 10.3390/ph17121709.
Google Scholar

50. Karapetsas A., Voulgaridou G. P., Iliadi D... "Honey extracts exhibit cytoprotective properties against UVB-induced photodamage in human experimental skin models." Antioxidants (Basel), vol. 9, 2020, p. 566. DOI: 10.3390/antiox9070566.
Google Scholar

51. Hall T. J., Azoidis I., Barroso I. A., Hughes E. A. B., Grover L. M., Cox S. C.. "Formulation of an antimicrobial superabsorbent powder that gels in situ to produce reactive oxygen." Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl, vol. 118, 2021, p. 111479. DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2020.111479.
Google Scholar

52. Taylor M. M., Jafarnia J. L., Black T. A., Nelson K. C., Rogge M. N.. "Letter: Allergic contact dermatitis to medihoney® gel after mastectomy: Role of alkyl glucoside sensitization." Dermatitis, vol. , 5-7-2025, p. . DOI: 10.1089/derm.2025.0037.
Google Scholar

53. Nyman G., Hagvall L.. "A case of allergic contact cheilitis caused by propolis and honey." Contact Dermatitis, vol. 74, 2016, p. 186. DOI: 10.1111/cod.12500.
Google Scholar

54. Katayama M., Inomata N., Inagawa N., Fukuro S., Aihara M.. "A case of contact urticaria syndrome stage 3 after honey ingestion, induced by epicutaneous sensitization during skin care with honey." Contact Dermatitis, vol. 74, 2016, p. 189. DOI: 10.1111/cod.12506.
Google Scholar

55. Pasolini G., Semenza D., Capezzera R... "Allergic contact cheilitis induced by repeated contact with propolis-enriched honey." Contact Dermatitis, vol. 50, 2004, p. 322. DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-1873.2004.00341j.x.
Google Scholar

56. Matos D., Serrano P., Menezes Brandão F.. "A case of allergic contact dermatitis caused by propolis-enriched honey." Contact Dermatitis, vol. 72, 2015, p. 59. DOI: 10.1111/cod.12297.
Google Scholar

57. Florek A. G., Croitoru A., Krunic A. L.. "Allergic contact dermatitis caused by propolis-enriched honey: A case of severe penile oedema." Australas J Dermatol, vol. 60, 2019, p. 157. DOI: 10.1111/ajd.12916.
Google Scholar

58. Antelmi A., Trave I., Gallo R... "Prevalence of contact allergy to Propolis-testing with different Propolis patch test materials." Contact Dermatitis, vol. 92, 2025, p. 349. DOI: 10.1111/cod.14773.
Google Scholar

59. DeKoven J. G., Warshaw E. M., Reeder M. J... "North American Contact Dermatitis Group patch test results: 2019-2020." Dermatitis, vol. 34, 2023, p. 90. DOI: 10.1089/derm.2022.29017.jdk.
Google Scholar

60. Gulbahar O., Ozturk G., Erdem N., Kazandi A.C., Kokuludag A.. "Psoriasiform contact dermatitis due to propolis in a beekeeper." Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol, vol. 94, 2005, p. 509. DOI: 10.1016/S1081-1206(10)61123-4.
Google Scholar

61. Bittmann S., Luchter E.. "The role of medical honey (medihoney) in pediatric medical care: a critical review." J Clin Cases Rep, vol. 3, 2019, p. 59. DOI: .

62. Mohd Tamrin M. I.. "The dilemma of diagnosing wound botulism in an infant: A rare case of paralysis with topical application of honey." Int J Infect Dis, vol. 95, 2020, p. 157. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.03.044.
Google Scholar

63. Parizad N., Hajimohammadi K., Hassanpour A., Goli R.. "Treating surgical site infection by honey antibacterial wound dressing in a neonate: a case report." Br J Nurs, vol. 31, 2022, p. S8. DOI: 10.12968/bjon.2022.31.4.S8.
Google Scholar

64. Amaya R.. "Safety and efficacy of active Leptospermum honey in neonatal and paediatric wound debridement." J Wound Care, vol. 24, 2015, p. 95. DOI: 10.12968/jowc.2015.24.3.95.
Google Scholar